Actualización Consenso Neumonía asociada a ventilación mecánica: Segunda parte. Prevención / Update. Consensus on Ventilator Associated Pneumonia: Second Part: Prophylaxis

Ventilator associated pneumonia is a life threatening disease, in spite of advances in its treatment, consequently the development of prevention strategies is a key factor in improving the morbidity and mortality in intensive care units (ICU). The new developments in this field in the last years led to the need to update the recommendations done in 2001. Then, a new search and analysis of scientific literature was performed. The obtained data support different strategies highlighting: semi-recumbent position at 45° of patients; incorporation of routinely oral hygiene procedures with chlorhexidine; preference of orotracheal intubation; performing subglotic aspiration; use of standard hand hygiene techniques; not routine change of ventilator circuits; and defining bundles to organize the work at ICU. Some strategies were recommended for being of similar efficacy to others but cost-effective as: use of heat and moisture humidificators; and changing humidificators every 5 to 7 days. The use of open or closed endotracheal suctioning system does not affect the incidence of pneumonia. Some recommendations were not incorporated because of lack of evidence supporting effectiveness, controversial data or doubtful application to our country as selective digestive decontamination.

La neumonía asociada a ventilación mecánica ha persistido como una enfermedad relacionada a una alta mortalidad, a pesar de los avances que se han tenido en tratamiento. Es así que, hacer énfasis en la prevención de ésta, es fundamental para mejorar la morbi-mortalidad de las unidades de cuidados intensivos (UCIs). Los nuevos enfoques reportados en esta materia en los últimos años, hicieron necesaria la actualización de las recomendaciones hechas el año 2001. En vista de esto, se realizó una nueva búsqueda y análisis de la literatura científica. La información obtenida apoya diferentes intervenciones destacando: el uso de la posición semisentada a 45°; la higiene oral, de rutina, con clorhexidina; preferencia de la vía endotraqueal para intubación; realización de aspiración subglótica rutinaria; uso de las precauciones estándares; evitar el cambio rutinario de los circuitos de ventilación mecánica; y desarrollar paquetes de medidas ("bundles") que permitan organizar el trabajo en las UCIs. Algunas estrategias fueron recomendadas con datos de similar eficacia, pero mejor costo efectividad como: el uso de humidificadores higroscópicos; y el cambio de humidificadores cada 5 a 7 días. El uso de sistemas de aspiración abiertos o cerrados no afecta la incidencia de neumonía. Algunas recomendaciones no fueron incorporadas por falta de evidencia que asegurase su efectividad, datos controversiales o posibilidad dudosa de aplicación a nuestro país como la descontaminación intestinal selectiva.

[Biological risk accidents among undergraduate healthcare students: five years experience]. / Accidentes de riesgo biológico entre estudiantes de carreras de la salud: Cinco años de experiencia.

Undergraduate healthcare students are exposed to bloodborne pathogens, and data from developing countries is scarce. We report the experience of a comprehensive program dedicated to the management of this risk. The program includes financial coverage, a 24-hour attention system, HIV, HBV, HCV testing, and free provision of post-exposure antiretroviral drugs. During 2003-2007, incidence rates of these exposures reached 0.9 per 100 student-years. Events were only observed among medicine, nursing, and midwifery students, with rates highest among nursing students (RR 3.5 IC95 1.93 - 6.51). Cuts and needle stick injuries predominated (74.7% of accidents). Three students were exposed to HIV patients (1.9%), all of them received prophylactic drugs, infection was discarded after follow up, and also discarded after exposures to HBV or HCV (0.6% of all accidents). Cost per 1000 student-year was less than 2000 USD. Healthcare students are exposed to biological risks during their studies and a comprehensive program is feasible in a developing country.

Accidentes de riesgo biológico entre estudiantes de carreras de la salud: Cinco años de experiencia / Biological risk accidents among undergraduate healthcare students: Five years experience

Undergraduate healthcare students are exposed to bloodborne pathogens, and data from developing countries is scarce. We report the experience of a comprehensive program dedicated to the management of this risk. The program includes financial coverage, a 24-hour attention system, HIV, HBV, HCV testing, and free provisión of post-exposure antiretroviral drugs. During 2003-2007, incidence rates of these exposures reached 0.9 per 100 student-years. Events were only observed among medicine, nursing, and midwifery students, with rates highest among nursing students (RR 3.5 IC95 1.93 - 6.51). Cuts andneedle stick injuries predominated (74.7 percent of accidents). Three students were exposed to HIV patients (1.9 percent), all of them received prophylactic drugs, infection was discarded after follow up, and also discarded after exposures to HBV or HCV (0.6 percent of all accidents). Cost per 1000 student-year was less than 2000 USD. Healthcare students are exposed to biological risks during their studies and a comprehensive program is feasible in a developing country.

Los estudiantes de pregrado de las carreras de la salud están expuestos a riesgos biológicos con agentes de transmisión sanguínea. En este trabajo se reporta la experiencia acumulada con un programa integral para este tipo de accidentes y que incluye atención gratuita las 24 horas, estudio serológico de la fuente para VIH, VHC y VHB, y entrega de anti-retrovirales post-exposición a pacientes infectados por VIH. Desde el año 2003 al 2007 la tasa de incidencia alcanzó una cifra de 0,9 eventos por 100 estudiantes-año. Las exposiciones de riesgo fueron observadas sólo entre estudiantes de medicina, enfermería y obstetricia, siendo la mayor tasa en alumnos de enfermería (RR 3,5 IC95 1,93 a 6,51). Tres alumnos estuvieron expuestos a pacientes con infección por VIH (l,9 por cientoo de todos los accidentes), todos ellos recibieron profilaxis, descartándose seroconversión en el seguimiento, al igual que en casos con exposición ante VHB y VHC (0,6 por cientoo del total de accidentes). El costo del programa fue menor a US$ 2000 por 1.000 estudiantes-año. Los estudiantes de las carreras de la salud están expuestos a riesgos biológicos durante sus estudios y requieren de un programa de manejo, el que es posible de lograr en un país en desarrollo.

[Tuberculosis in health care workers from a public health service in Santiago, Chile]. / Tuberculosis en el personal de salud del Servicio de Salud Metropolitano Sur de Santiago, Chile.

OBJECTIVE: To evalúate the risk of tuberculosis (TBC) among health care workers (HCW) of the Southern Metropolitan Health Service (SMHS) of Santiago, Chile. METHOD: A retrospective study using records of patients receiving TBC treatment in the SMHS from 2001 to 2006 was performed, in which HCW were identified. Total population of HCWs at risk was calculated using annual records of personnel hired at the SMHS. Data on TBC cases and rates were compared against data of the SMSH and hazard ratio (HR) and confidence intervals obtained. RESULTS: Fourteen cases were identified, predominantly among auxiliary personnel (n: 4, 35.7%), nursing staff and ambulance drivers (n: 2, 14.3%) each). Cases occurred in personnel from 41.7% of hospitals and 10.3% of ambulatory care centers within the SMHS and 92.2% involved personnel with direct patient care or contact. Pulmonary localization was seen in 11 (78.6%), and more than half (57.2%) had a positive sputum stain or culture. All cases initiated treatment, but 1 abandoned it and other died of liver failure associated to cirrhosis (7.1% each). Between 2003 and 2006, the annual rate of TBC among HCW ranged between 0 and 79 per 100.000, and during 2004 it was higher than the rate observed in SMHS (Hazard ratio 4.56; IC(95): 1.83-10.62). [corrected] CONCLUSIONS: Despite TBC rate decline in Chile, this disease still represents a significant occupational risk for HCW. Notably, more than half of cases among HCWs are contagious, and despite treatment, some have a lethal evolution.

Tuberculosis en el personal de salud del Servicio de Salud Metropolitano Sur de Santiago, Chile / Tuberculosis in health care workers from a public health service in Santiago, Chile

Objective: To evalúate the risk of tuberculosis (TBC) among health care workers (HCW) of the Southern Metropolitan Health Service (SMHS) of Santiago, Chile. Method: A retrospective study using records of patients receiving TBC treatment in the SMHS from 2001 to 2006 was performed, in which HCW were identified. Total population of HCWs at risk was calculated using annual records of personnel hired at the SMHS. Data on TBC cases and rates were compared against data of the SMSH and hazard ratio (HR) and confidence intervals obtained. Results: Fourteen cases were identified, predominantly among auxiliary personnel (n: 4, 35.7 percent), nursing staff and ambulance drivers (n: 2, 14.3 percent) each). Cases occurred in personnel from 41.7 percent of hospitals and 10.3 percent of ambulatory care centers within the SMHS and 92.2 percent involved personnel with direct patient care or contact. Pulmonary localization was seen in 11 (78.6 percent), and more than half (57.2 percent) had a positive sputum stain or culture. All cases initiated treatment, but 1 abandoned it and other died of liver failure associated to cirrhosis (7.1 percent each). Between 2003 and 2006, the annual rate of TBC among HCW ranged between 0 and 79 per 100.000, and during 2004 it -10.62). Conclusions: Despite TBC rate decline in Chile, this disease still represents a significant occupational risk for HCW. Notably, more than half of cases among HCWs are contagious, and despite treatment, some have a lethal evolution.

Objetivo: Evaluar el riesgo de tuberculosis (TBC) clínica a través de un estudio retrospectivo sobre la razón de prevalencia de TBC entre el personal de salud (PS) del Servicio de Salud Metropolitano Sur de la Región Metropolitana (SSMS) y la población de la misma zona. Método: Los casos entre el PS y el resto del SSMS, junto a la población total y la dotación del PS, se obtuvieron de los registros existentes en el propio SSMS (2001-2006). Resultados: Se identificaron 14 casos, afectando predominantemente a técnicos paramédicos (35,7 por ciento), enfermeros y conductores de ambulancia (14,3 por ciento) cada uno). El 92,9 por ciento de los afectados laboraba en el área clínica. Los casos se presentaron entre el PS de hospitales y consultorios. Los afectados involucraban al 41,7 por ciento del total de hospitales y a 10,3 por ciento de los centros de atención primaria. La localización fue predominantemente pulmonar (78,6 por ciento) y más de la mitad tenía frotis o cultivo de expectoración positivo (57,2 por ciento). Todos los casos iniciaron tratamiento, 12 lo completaron con éxito (85,7 por ciento), uno lo abandonó y el restante falleció por falla hepática asociada a cirrosis (7,1 por ciento cada uno). La tasa entre el PS varió entre 0 y 79 casos por 100.000 y el año 2004 fue significativamente superior al valor registrado en el SSMS (razón de nesgo 4,56; IC95: 1,83 -10,62). Conclusiones: A pesar de la declinación de la TBC en Chile, aún representa un riesgo ocupacional para el PS. Notablemente, más de la mitad de los casos son bacilíferos y algunos casos tienen una evolución letal.

[Tuberculosis in healthcare workers]. / Tuberculosis en el personal de salud.

Tuberculosis (TB) is an occupational risk hazard that explains 5 to 5.361 additional cases of TB per 100.000 individuals among healthcare workers (HCW) in relation to general population in developing countries. For each clinical case a number of additional infections are occurring, that can be detected by tuberculin skin test conversion among non-BCG vaccinated HCW or by interferon-gamma testing. Risk factors for HCW infection include number of TB patients examined, job characteristics and place of work, delay in diagnostic suspicion, patients with multidrug resistant strains, limited access to appropriate ventilation systems, non-compliance with aerosol dissemination precautions, immune suppressed and/or malnourished HCW. Molecular studies suggest that only 32 to 42% of TB cases among HCW are related to occupational exposure. Useful measures to prevent occupational TB acquisition include a number of administrative-, infrastructure- and personal-related measures that have proven to be successful in reducing occurrence of new infections including clinical TB cases among HCW. In Chile, two official government sponsored guidelines are currently available for preventing TB infection among HCW, issued by the national TBC Control Program and by the National Nosocomial infection Control Program. Major differences in recommendations between these guidelines indicate that an update is urgently needed.

Tuberculosis en el personal de salud / Tuberculosis in healthcare workers

Tuberculosis (TB) is an occupational risk hazard that explains 5 to 5.361 additional cases of TB per 100.000 individuals among healthcare workers (HCW) in relation to general population in developing countries. For each clinical case a number of additional infections are occurring, that can be detected by tuberculin skin test conversion among non-BCG vaccinated HCW or by interferon-gamma testing. Risk factors for HCW infection include number of TB patients examined, job characteristics and place of work, delay in diagnostic suspicion, patients with multidrug resistant strains, limited access to appropriate ventilation systems, non-compliance with aerosol dissemination precautions, immune suppressed and/or malnourished HCW. Molecular studies suggest that only 32 to 42 percent of TB cases among HCW are related to occupational exposure. Useful measures to prevent occupational TB acquisition include a number of administrative-, infrastructure- and personal-related measures that have proven to be successful in reducing occurrence of new infections including clinical TB cases among HCW. In Chile, two official government sponsored guidelines are currently available for preventing TB infection among HCW, issued by the national TBC Control Program and by the National Nosocomial infection Control Program. Major differences in recommendations between these guidelines indicate that an update is urgently needed.

La tuberculosis (TBC) es un riesgo ocupacional que explica entre 5 y 5.361 casos por 100.000 personas en el personal de salud (PS) por sobre la población general en países en vías de desarrollo. Cada caso clínico implica que han ocurrido muchos casos de infección. Esta infección puede ser detectada por la prueba de conversión de tuberculina entre personas no vacunadas o por prueba de liberación de gama interferón. Los factores de riesgo incluyen la frecuencia de pacientes con TBC atendidos, la función y lugar de trabajo del PS, retraso en la sospecha diagnóstica, atención de pacientes con cepas multi-resistentes, sistemas de ventilación limitados, falta de aplicación de precauciones por aerosoles y PS con inmunosupresión o desnutrición. Los estudios moleculares han permitido aclarar que sólo 32 a 42 por ciento de los casos en el PS responde a adquisición ocupacional. Las medidas útiles para prevenir este riesgo incluyen un conjunto de disposiciones administrativas, de infraestructura y precauciones en el personal que han permitido reducir el riesgo de infección, y en ocasiones el de TBC clínica, en el PS. En Chile existen actualmente dos normas reguladoras sobre la materia, una del Programa Nacional de la TBC y el otro del Programa de Infecciones Intrahospitalarias, las que difieren en algunos aspectos sustantivos y que ameritan una revisión.